Types of Interviews

Types of Interviews

In general, there are several types of interview’s, which may be briefly discussed as follows:

1. Unstructured Or Non-Directive Or Informal Or Traditional Interview
In an unstructured interview, there are no predetermined questions or prearranged sequence of topics for discussion. Consequently, by design unstructured interviews are highly flexible and informal – no fixed questions format or systematic scoring procedure. Interviewers are free to probe into those areas seeming to deserve further investigation and to adapt (alter) their approach to the prevailing situation, as well as to changing stream of job applicants. Spontaneity characterizes this type of interview. Its direction is large determined by a job applicant’s answers. To be effective, an unstructured interview requires highly skilled and trained interviewers. Experience shows that, if properly conducted, an unstructured interview can lend to significant job-related insights. However, such interview is highly susceptible to distortion, bias, inconsistency and difficult verification of its results.

2. Structured Or Patterned Interview
Structured interviews are recommended as alternative to traditional unstructured or informal interview. A structured interview may be defined as a series of job-related questions with standardized answers that are consistently applied across all interviews for a particular job. In this interview standardized questions are asked from all applicants for certain jobs and a standard form is used for recording responses. Standardization permits easy comparison of candidates. It also helps in achieving and proving validity. Of Course, no interview can be completely unstructured or nondirective and it is hard to conceive of an interview that is totally structured or patterned.

Generally, structured interviews are constructed, conducted and scored by a committee of three to six members so as to try to eliminate bias. The structured interviews are more likely to provide consistent and reliable information from the various interviewers. Furthermore, if the specific interview questions in a format are drawn from an accurate job analysis, then structured interviews are also more likely to be valid. However, such interviewers have limited flexibility. The unstructured interview format (form) restricts adaptation (alteration) to unusual circumstances or unusual interviews. Such interviews do not afford the opportunity to the applicants to demonstrate their job knowledge, communication skills, etc.

3. Stress Interview
Most interviews try to place interviewees at ease. However, the opposite is true in the stress interview. It is specifically intended to determine a job applicant’s interviewer purposefully attempts to create a climate of intimidation (threat), criticism and ridicule (mockery or making some one appear foolish or worthless). The purpose is to deserve the interviewee’s reaction to stress and tension. This approach is based on the theory that certain personal traits, for example, emotional stability, can be deserved only when an individual is placed in stressful surroundings. Thus, an interviewer may deliberately interrupt an applicant in his mindsentence, cast aspersions on an applicant’s character, remain silent for protracted (longer) periods of time and adopt a hostile posture in an attempt to create a pressurized situation.

The extent which stress interviews are useful is debatable. Some justify its use when the concerned job position is particularly stressful, for example, law enforcement officer, airline pilot, sales representative, or fire fighter. However, some critics contend that the kind of stress created in an interview is rarely similar to that found on a job. Moreover, there are not very many positions in which the ability to cope with stress in a primary characteristics.

4. Group Interview
Interview also differs according to how many interviewers and applicants are involved. Normally, job applicants meet with interviewers one-on-one, i.e., individually. However, in the group interview, several applicants questioned together by one or more interviewers. A small group of fine or six candidates is observed and evaluated in group discussions and interactions, by the selectors.

5. Series Interview
For certain types of jobs, especially managerial jobs candidates may be required to go through a series of interviews of a progressively rigorous nature.

6. Board Interview
For important jobs, especially those of a political nature the board interview may be used. Here several interviewers, often members of a government board or committee, quiz one or more candidates.

Selection Process

Selection Process Or Elements of Selection Process

The major steps involved in the selection process may be discussed as follows:

1. Filling in Application Form
This may be regarded as the first step of selection process. Candidates are supposed to provide complete information about them in a prescribed printed form. It may require information regarding a candidate’s name, father’s name, address, nationality, sex, marital status, religion, education qualifications, work experience, fields of extra-curriculum activities, references of two eminent persons and so on. The application of the candidates provides the basis for further analysis of the candidature and examination of his suitability for employment. The specific type of information required in an application blank may vary from firm to firm any by positions within the organisation. However, there is high degree of similarity with regard to general information sought in the application blanks of various organisations. If properly used application blanks can be an effective aid in selection. However, their usefulness is largely dependent on the accuracy of data and information furnished by the candidates. In their eagerness to obtain work, some applicants may be tempted to stretch the truth concerning matters such as past experience, responsibilities, salary and reasons for bearing the previous job. For this reason, many human resource managers make it a point to query applicants further regarding these matters during the employment interview.

2. Preliminary Screening
This refers to initial assessment of basic suitability of candidates for the job positions. The human resource manage sees whether the applicants meet the basic academic and other minimum requirements as to age, work experience, etc. Such screening may be done by going through the data and information supplied in the application blanks or by holding preliminary screening interviews. The basic objectives of preliminary screening are (i) to eliminate the unsuitable candidates at an early stage, (ii) to reduce the overall cost of selection.

3. Employment Tests
Candidates, who are filtered through the initial screening, submit themselves to certain tests, formal or informal. Test is a means of evaluating candidates knowledge, skills, experience, attitudes, aptitudes, personality, interest, capacity, physical characteristics, level of mental ability, likes and dislikes and soon. In some cases, such as typing and shorthand, computer knowledge and efficiency, etc., tests are the only way to determine the suitability of candidates for the job.

There are several types of tests, which are widely used for selection purposes. They include; intelligence tests, aptitude tests, personality tests, performance tests and so on. Written tests are found to be most popular in many cases.
Tests provide a more objective, authentic and consistent basis for selection of right candidates. They help the organisation in arriving at a judgement on the likely work behaviour and performance of candidates. However, certain conditions should be met if tests are to be used for employee selection. First, the tests should be reliable. In other words, they should provide consistent results. Secondly, tests should be valid. In other words, they should measure what they are designed to measure. If a test is designed to predict job performance, prospective employees who score well on the test, should prove to be objective when different scorers interpreting the results of the same test, arrive at similar interpretations. Finally, tests should be standardized. This requires them to be administered under standard conditions to a large group of persons. The purpose of standardization is to obtain norms; therefore specific test scores will be meaningful when compared to other scores in the group. If a test cannot indicate the ability to perform the job, it must not be used.

Testing helps in achieving the most efficient matching of applicants with jobs. From a social standpoint, testing that is job-related, serves the objective of equal employment opportunity, to which modern societies are increasingly committed. Thus, it is vital that organisations have a thoughtful process for validating any selection tests they use. No doubt, testing is a complex, time consuming and expensive process.

4. Employment Interview
Although employment tests provide a lot of valuation information and insight about the candidate, they do not provide a complete set of information and knowledge required about a candidate. The interview helps in evaluating information obtained from the application blank and tests. It provides an opportunity to the interviewer to integrate different pieces of information through his personal impressions and observations of the interviewee so as to such a decision regarding the suitability of the applicant for employment. Thus, the combination of tests and in view provides better results in selection. It allows applicants to obtain additional information about the prospective employer.

An employment interview is part of almost every selection process. It is the most important step in selection. This is because an interview enables the selectors to get a first hand idea of the personality of the candidate, their gestures, communication skills, general skills, mannerisms, reactions, presence of mind and confidence. Further more an interview presents an opportunity for both the organisation and the job applicant to “sell” themselves to one another and to establish their mutual expectations. However, for such expectations to be accurately established, it is essential that employment interview he as realistic as possible. In order to prevent unrealistic expectations, disillusionment and feelings of being misled in new employees, which may result in lack of job commitment and early turnover (leaving the organisation), interviewees should be told negative as well as positive aspects of a position, so that the applicants who view such negative aspects as unacceptable, can remove themselves from further consideration. Those who remain will represent a recruitment pool with accurate job expectations. Research by John P. Wanous (1980) suggests that such “realistic recruitment” contributes significantly to reducing employee turnover

Principles of Staffing

Principles

Staffing not only helps in acquiring right talent, but also strives for nurturing. There are no universally accepted staffing principles. However, Heinz Weihrich and Harold Koontz have identified certain useful major principles or guidelines for understanding and performing more effective staffing function.

1. Principle of the Objective of Staffing
The objective of managerial staffing is to ensure that those qualified personnel who are able and wiling to occupy them fill organisation roles. There is considerable evidence of failure to achieve results when these qualities are lacking.

2. Principle of Staffing
The clearer the definition of organisation roles and their human requirements and the better the techniques of manager appraisal and training employed, the higher the managerial quality. Those organisations that have no established job definitions, no effective appraisals and no system for training and development, will have to rely on coincidence or outside sources to fill positions with able managers. On the other hand organizations applying the systems approach to staffing and human resource management, will utilize the potentials of individuals in the enterprise more effectively and efficiently.

3. Principle of Job Definition
The more precisely the results expected of managers are identified, the more the dimensions of their positions can be defined. Since organizational roles occupied by people with different needs, these roles must have many dimensions – such as pay, status, power, direction and possibility of accomplishment – that induce managers to perform.

4. Principles of Managerial Appraisal
The more clearly variable objectives and required managerial activities are identified, the more precise can be the appraisal of managers against these criteria. This principle suggests that performance should be measured both against verifiable objectives (as in an appraisal approach based on management by objectives) and against standards of performance as managers. The appraisal of managers as manager considers how well the key managerial activities within the functions of planning; organizing, staffing, directing and controlling are carried out.

5. Principle of Open Competition
The more an enterprise is committed to the assurance of quality management, the more it will encourage open competition among all candidates for management positions. Violation of this principles has led many firms to appoint managers with inadequate abilities. Although social pressures strongly favour promotion from within the enterprise, these forces should be resisted whenever better candidates can be brought in from the outside. At the same time, the application of this principle obligates the enterprise to appraise its people accurately and to provide them with opportunities for development.

6. Principle of Management Training and Development
The more management training and development are integrated with the management process and enterprise objectives, the more effective the development programmes and activities will be. This principle suggests that in the systems approach, training and development efforts are related to the managerial functions, the goals of the enterprise and the professional needs of managers.

7. Principle of Training Objectives
The more precisely the training objectives are stated; the more likely are the chances of achieving them. The analysis of training needs is the basis for training objectives that give direction to development and facilitate the measurement of the effectiveness of training efforts. This principle brings into focus the contribution that training makes to the purpose of the enterprise and the development of individuals.

8. Principles of Continuing Development
The more an enterprise is committed to managerial excellence, the more it requires that manager practice continuing self-development. This principle suggests in a fast-changing and competitive environment, that managers cannot stop learning. Instead, they have to update their managerial knowledge continuously, revaluate their approaches to managing and improve their managerial skills and performance to achieve enterprise results

Importance of Staffing

Need and Importance of Staffing

Progressive and successful organizations treat all employees as valuable human resources. Productivity and the resultant financial reward are dependent solely on the quality and skill of people. Some organizations make up for their lack of natural resources by their dedication to the maximum possible development of their human resources. If employees are put first, they help the enterprise to prosper. Staffing function provides proper mechanisms for efficient handling of personnel matters, including workers, grievances. Filed research indicates that employees tend to return the favour when they are treated with dignity and respect. Specially, it is reported that professional employees kept higher organizational commitment when their employer’s human resource practice were perceived to be fair and just. Staffing is responsible for creating such practices.

Activities

Staffing activities, though all derived from organisation strategy and structure, in turn activate the strategic management and the structure. Strategic orientation in staffing function increases the chances of organizational success.

Process

Staffing process and policies play a considerable role in acquiring right people at right time on right positions. Effective staffing function strives to establish cost-benefit relationship while manning the positions in the organisation structure – people are acquired at lower outflows for providing greater efforts, optimal contribution and higher commitment.

Relationship

Staffing is important in its relationship with other managerial functions, because without their human resources, organizations would remain empty skeletons that cannot move to achieve their goals. The functions of planning, organizing, directing and controlling become nonstarters without people n the organisation. It is clear that the effectiveness of other managerial functions depends on the degree of efficiency with which the staffing function is done. An organisation is healthy, strong and successful to the extent that its people are capable, skillful and committed. Further, the attitudes, orientations and performance of people partly depend on how efficiently the staffing function is handled by the enterprise and how much attention top management gives to it.

Need

Staffing function takes care of the need for building a sound organisation. In a sense, organisation widely differs in their quality and competence due to large variations in their human resources.

Staffing

Meaning and Scope of Staffing

Early definition of staffing focused narrowly on hiring people for vacant positions in an enterprise. Today, staffing is termed as human resource management and defined more broadly. Staffing may be defined as a managerial function of attracting, acquiring, developing and retaining human resources in order to provide the talent necessary for work activities leading to accomplishment of organizational objectives. This definition emphasizes that people are vital and valuable resources requiring proper care and attention. Thus, staffing involves: filling up various managerial and non-managerial positions created in the organisation structure with qualified persons, upgrading the quality and usefulness of the members of organisation for its success and its retaining the members by providing adequately for their welfare and career advancement.

The staffing process involves job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, selection, placement, orientation, training and development, compensation performance appraisal, career development, promotion, transfer and separation. In many organisations most of the aforesaid activities are handled by the Personnel Department, now popularly known as Human Resource Management Department. It may be noted that staffing decisions and initiatives are the basic responsibility of line managers. However, the personnel management department provides necessary specialist services as well as supportive and administrative services to line managers for effective management of human resources

Staffing is a continuous function of management because human resources continue to be a significant factor in organizational success and therefore the organisation always needs to acquire and retain in proper form its personnel. Moreover, employee welfare and development, expansion and diversification, promotion and transfers, demotions and separations, retirement and death, modernization and change etc are common events continually taking place in an organisation, rendering staffing a never ending process. Managers have to keep a regular watch on the number and composition of people required by the organisation. The continuous nature of staffing is self-evident, as employees need regular care, balance and development to be effective for contribution towards achievement of expected results. Establishing and maintaining congruence between organizational goals and employees, personal goals is also an important regular aspect of organisation’s working. To keep a proper working climate is an ongoing responsibility of personnel department

Decentralization of Authority

Decentralization of Authority

Decentralization of authority means dispersal of decision – making power to the lower levels of the organisation. According to Allen, decentralization refers to the systematic effort to delegate to the lowest level all authority except that which can only be exercised at central points. Thus decentralization means reservation of same authority (power to plan, organize, direct and control) at the top level and delegation of authority to make decision at points as near as possible to where action takes place.

Decentralization is not same thing as delegation. Delegation means entrustment of responsibility and authority from one individual to another. But decentralization means scattering of authority through the organization. It is the diffusion of authority with in the enterprise. Delegation can take place from one person to another and be a complete process. But decentralization is complete only when the fullest possible delegation is made to all or most of the people.
Decentralization is distinct from dispersion

Dispersion occurs when plants and offices are located at different place with physical distance between them. Performance of work in dispersed plants and offices does not necessarily lead to decentralization. A company may be highly centralized although its physical facilities and employees are widely dispersed and company may be highly decentralized even through all physical facilities and employees are located in a single building.

Distinction Between Delegation and Decentralization

The points of distinction between and decentralization are given below:

1. Delegation is a process of devolution of authority where as decentralization.

2. Delegation take place between a superior and a subordinate and is a complete process. It may consist of certain tasks alone. But decentralization involves spreading out the total decision – making power.

3. In delegation control rests entirely with the superior or delegator but in decentralization, the top management may exercise control only in a general manager and delegate the authority for control to the departmental manager.

4. Delegation is a must for management. Subordinates must be given sufficient authority to perform their assignments otherwise they will come to the superior time and again even for minor decisions. However, decentralization is optional in the sense that the top management may or may not decide to disperse authority.

Organisation Charts

Organisation Charts

Organisation structure is represented primarily by means of a graphic illustration called an organisation chart. An organisation chart is a diagram depiciting organisation’s formal positions and formal lines of authority. In fact, it is structural skeleton of an enterprise’s heirarchy of management. Organisation charts are a means of avoiding conflict by clarification. With their familiar pattern of boxes and connecting lines, these charts are used as a management tool for deploying human resources.

An organization chart shows two dimensions of the structure: (a) the vertical authority structure, such as official positions, span of management, heirarchy of command, etc and (b) the horizontal differentiation of work activities such as work units or departments. It reflects the pattern of authority flow from top management to the lower levels. It also shows managers, ranks and jurisdications, types of authority relationships, line, staff or functional – communication lines throughout the organization, the number of levels in the managerial hierarchy, the span of management and the relative status of different managerial positions and departments. Organisation charts also help in reflecting as to who reports to whom – who is superior and who is subordinate, how many subordinates are accountable to a superior and what are the avenue, open for advancement of a manager holding a particular position in the chart.

The organisation structure can be diagrammed into an organization chart in three different ways:

(a). The traditional or conventional vertical chart shows the position of the chief executive at the top of a pyramid form, from where the authority flows downward. The managers towards the top of the pyramid have more authority than those who are towards the bottom.

(b). The horizontal chart originates from its left and proceeds to the right, depicting the chief executive’s position at the extreme left and placing the successively lower managerial positions towards the right end.

(c). The circular or concentric chart places and shows the chief executives position at its center and other middle and lower level managerial position radiate from the center in concentric circles, the lowest managerial positions being placed on the outermost circle.

The horizontal and circular charts represents a healthy departure to the extent that they de-emphasize the hierarchical, i.e., bureaucratic nature of organisation structure. However, vertical charts are still common in practice. Normally, the greater the height of a vertical chart, the smaller the span of management and the lower the height, the greater the span of management. Organisation charts with little height are usually referred to as flat and those with much height as tall.

Advantages of Organisation Charts

They are useful in several ways as follows:

• Organisation chart is a means to indicate graphically how the managerial positions fit into the total organisation and how they relate to each other.
• It shows at a glance the lines of authority and reporting pattern.
• It provides a conceptional background to identify inconsistencies and deficiencies and thereby helps in deciding for further improving modifications to cope with future demands of the changing environment.
• It serves as a reliable blueprint for newly recruited personnel who may understood the structure of the organisation and the interrelationships among its various work units.
• It provides a framework of personnel classification and evaluation systems.

Limitations of Organisation Charts

• Organisation chart depicts only a static view of the organisation, while the organization is a dynamic concept.
• It shows only the formal relationships and fails to describe informal relationships in the organisation, though informal relationships are equally important and significantly affect the functioning of the organization.
• It does not show the quality and content of the managerial relationships that actually exist in the organization, but shows only the ’supposed relationships’. Thus, it fails to tell about the effectiveness of various elements, processes, and other structural dimensions within the organization.
• Organization charts become quickly outdated because they fail to incorporate into them the frequent changes or alternations taking place in the organization structure and in the patters of authority and activity relationships.

Importance of Organisation

Organisation is needed in order to avert the havoc of disorganisation. It may be briefly illustrated as follows: A short sentence is disorganized like this, riirggnagesnoiztlsuse. In this form it is nonsense. If we reorganize it substantially, it will look like this: Organizinggetsresults Now it is workable, but difficult. By a slight change, it reads: Organizing gets results. Hence organization become important for management by results – for accomplishing our goals.

A sound organization contributes greatly to continuity, growth and development of an enterprise in the following ways:

1. Facilities Administration
A properly designed organization facilitates both management and operation of the enterprise by helping in its smooth functioning through various factors, such as well-defined areas of work for employees; effective delegation and decentralization of authority; clear mutual relationships; good communication network; coordination of the activities of individuals, groups and units, adequate and control.

2. Facilitates growth, expansion and diversification
A sound organization structure is flexible enough to accommodate future changes with regard to growth expansion and diversification of enterprise’s activities. Besides, certain organization practices are developed which lead the business enterprise to expand and diversify.

3. Permits Optimum Utilization of Resources
Sound organisation permits optimum use of technological improvements and human resources and efforts (right persons being placed in right positions on the basis of their skills, knowledge and experience). It develops competent people through the facility of appropriate effective training and promotion opportunities.

4. Stimulates Creativity
Specialization provides individuals with well-defined duties, clear lines of authority and clearly defined responsibilities. Delegation and decentralization makes it possible for superiors to assign routine and repetitive jobs to their subordinates and to concentrate themselves on important issues in order to better exploit their own potential and encourage the creative thinking and innovative skills of the people.

Organisation

Meaning and Definition of Organisation

We live in the age of organisations. Modern civilization requires large aggressions of people working together to produce the goods and services efficiently. Organisations are grand strategies created to bring order out of chaos when works together. The structure resulting from three things is known organisation. (i) identifying and grouping of work, (ii) defining and delegating authority and responsibility, and (iii) establishing relationships among those who are engaged in performing group activities. Without defined relationships, there will be no organisation. Peter Drucker rightly says, An institution (organisation) is like a tune it is not constituted by individual sounds but by the relating between them. Organisation is a dynamic tool for interweaning six M’s, Men, Money, Machines, Materials, Methods and Markets. People work for organisation’s objectives and manage its affairs for achieving them effectively and efficiently.
Some important definitions of organisation may be given as follows:

Hodge and Johnson
An organisation can be thought of as a complex relationships among human and physical resources and work, cemented together into a network of system.

James Mooney
Organisation is the form of every human association for attainment of a common purpose.

J.L. Massie
Organisation is the structure and process by which a cooperative group of human beings allocates its tasks among its members, identifies relationship and integrates its activities towards common objectives.

George Terry
Organizing is the establishing of effective Behavioural relationships among persons so that they may work together efficiency and gain personal satisfaction in doing selected tasks under given environmental conditions for the purpose of achieving some goal or objectives.

Organisation Concepts

Every scholar has defined organisation from his own perception. But in all, there are three concepts of organisation as follows:
1. Structure
2. Process
3. System

1. Organisation as a Structure
Weihrich and Koontz point out, Organisation implies a formalized intentional structure of roles or positions. Organisation structure may be defined as the established pattern of relationships among the component parts of an enterprise. In this sense, organisation structure refers to the network of relationships among individuals and positions in an enterprise. It is the network of horizontal and vertical relationships among the members of group designed to accomplish some common objectives. This network governs the activities of people in the form of a social group. The horizontal dimension shows differentiation of job into departments, divisions or sections. The vertical dimension reflects what is known as hierarchy or chain of command, of authority. The organisation structure is the skeleton framework of business enterprise. Thus, the organisation structure implies the following things.

(a). Division of labour into group activities under departments, divisions or sections and also into various positions.

(b). Assignment of tasks and activities to different persons and departments.

(c). The formal relationships with well-defined responsibilities.

(d). The hierarchical relationships with allocation of authority between superior and subordinates – delegation and decentralization of authority.

(e). Span of control with defined number of subordinates under a superior.

(f). Coordination among different departments and people.

(g). A set of policies, procedures, standards (goals) and methods of evaluation of performance, all formulated to guide the people and their activities.

However, the actual operations and behaviour of people are not always governed by the formal structure of relations. Hence, the formal structural arrangements are affected and modified by social and psychological forces combined known as informal organisation.

2. Organisation as a System
Organisation as a system implies the component parts, each of which has its unique properties, capabilities and natural relationships and thus all are interrelated and interdependent. Hence, system implies an arrangement and set of relationships among multiple parts operating as a whole, each part being called a sub-system. Every sub-system is itself a system composed of smaller interrelated parts of sub-system. The system produce synergic effect which means that the sum of all the parts is greater then the whole i.e., 2 + 2 = more than 4. Organisation as a system also implies that it is an open system, which means that it interacts with its environment for its survival, growth and development. An organisation as a socio-technological system consists of the following components or elements:

(a). Inputs
The system takes certain inputs from its environment. These inputs are human resources, physical resources and facilities, energy, supplies, technology and information.

(b). Processing or Transformation
Processing or transformation involves the utilization of the inputs through some specified technique to convert them into outputs. A number of sub-systems are created for processing or transformations purpose, such as production, finance, personnel and research and development. Interrelatedness and interdependence of all these sub-systems is kept in mind.

(c). Output
The processing or transformation technique results in output that may be intended and unintended. Intended outputs are usually called objectives or goals. For example, high productivity and efficiency we intended objectives. The output may consist of goods and services. An unintended output may be informal relation among the group members.

(d). Distribution
For distributing the output to the target market or consumers, several sub-systems may be created, such as sales, marketing, advertising, etc. Distribution may be done directly or through intermediaries known as wholesalers, semi-wholesalers and retailers.

(e). Management
The management component of the organisation system is concerned with the determination and implementation of processing and distribution activities in order to achieve system’s goals. It involves planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling.

(f). Feedback
For effective managing, feedback of information with regard to the quality, quantity, cost and time of system outputs is necessary. It also helps in establishing and enforcing standards for desired results. It facilities corrective action wherever needed in the system.

(g). Environment
The management components helps in coping with the environment, which is complex and fast changing in the modern world. Management takes adequate steps needed for availing the opportunities and averting the threats in the environment. If the organisation system intends to survive, grow and develops, it has to interact properly and successfully with its environment.

3. Organisation as a Process
Organisation as a process is known as organizing. Weihrich and Koontz point out, Organizing is (1) the identification and classification of required activities, (2) the grouping of activities of activities necessary to attain objectives, (3) the assignment of each grouping to a manager with the authority (dilatation) necessary for coordination horizontally (on the same or a similar organizational level) and vertically (for example, corporate, headquarters, division, and department) in the organization structure.’

Group Cohesiveness

Group Cohesiveness

The termcohesiveness implies solidarity. Group cohesiveness may be characterized by the situation in which all members of the group work together to achieve a common goal or where every one takes responsibility to work for the group goals. Groups cohesiveness may be described as the force, which keeps the members of the group together. The main aim of the groups is to satisfy its members needs. The more needs are satisfies, the more attractive it becomes for the members of the group. Cohesion is essential not only for the existence of the group but also for the achievement of the group’s objective. If group cohesion is high, the interaction between members will high.

Cohesiveness has a direct bearing on group behaviour. The greater the group cohesiveness, the greater will be its influence on the member’s behaviour. A cohesive group is able to act as one body to achieve its goals. In a cohesiveness group, group members are apt to conform to group norms. Conformity to group norms is essential for the effective functioning of the group. Thus, conformity and cohesiveness are interrelated and are reinforcing factors. According to Shaw, members of highly cohesive groups are more energetic in group activities, are less likely to be absent from group meetings and are happy when the group succeeds and sad when it fails, where as members are not dedicated to the group and its purposes their loyalty and support are mediocre or variable.

Factors Influencing Cohesiveness

There are several forces that bring cohesion in the group:

1. Degree of Dependency on the Group
Members join the group because it satisfies certain needs. The more highly dependent a person is on the group for his need satisfaction the greater will be the group attractiveness and consequently greater is its cohesiveness.

2. Size of the Group
Size of the affects interaction among group members in inverse direction and also affects group cohesiveness. The larger the group size, the lesser the cohesiveness, due to problems of interaction among members of the groups, lack of appreciation of each other’s problem. Difficulty arises is achieving the common goals if the group. It is one of the reasons why informal group are smaller in size.

3. Homogeneity and Stable Membership
Groups whose members have diverse interests and different and also affects group cohesiveness. The larger the group size the lesser the cohesiveness due to problems of interaction among members of the group, lack of appreciation of each other’s problems Difficulty arises in achieving the common goals if the group is large. Hence the entire group dynamics revolves round the small group. It is one of the reasons why informal group are smaller in size.

4. Inter and Intra Group Competition
Competition among groups (inter-group) and competition among members of the groups (intro-group) have different effects on group get united and the group sets solidified. The solidarity continues among members of the winning group whereas the losing group gets weakend. Success resulting from inter-group competition increases cohesion further. The member of the losing group, if they have no hope of revival of prestige of the group, gradually leaves the group.

The picture is different when competition is among the members within the group. If the rivalry is healthy, members stand to gain. But, generally, intra-group rivalry among members takes the form of jealousy that results in the weakening to group cohesiveness. There may be three possible causes of intra group competition:

• When members or sub-groups within the group adopt different methods to accomplish the same goal
• When there are differences regarding the goal or goals of the group among members
• When goals of individual members clash with group goals.

5. Outside Pressure
When there is outside pressure or threat to group survival, the group members sink all their differences and join hands together to meet the challenges to the group. Hence, outside pressure or threat is a cementing force and increase group cohesiveness.

6. Customs and Traditions
If members share the same customs and traditions, they become familiar with one another in no time and also they are benefited from one another knowledge and experience. This commonness prevents the entry of any other person who does not follow the same traditions. This develops a feeling among members that they are distinct from others. This increases interpersonal relationships among members.

7. Location
People who work at the same geographical location tend to be close to one another and have numerous opportunities to interact and exchange ideas, resulting in cohesiveness of the group. But groups are not cohesive when their members do not work within the same geographical limits.

Group Cohesiveness and Productivity

Group cohesiveness and productivity do not seem to be related. Highly cohesive groups need not necessarily be highly productive or vice versa. Researches also could not establish any relationship, positive or negative, between these two variables. However it has usually been observed that a cohesive group is more productive than a less cohesive group, the group’s attitude favors the goals of the organisation. As the members of the group they follow the guidelines prepared by the group.

If the group supports the organizational goals, the members will tend to produce more. On the other hand, where cohesiveness is high but the group does not favor the organizational goals, productivity of the member’s declines. Where the group norms are not supportive of performance, cohesive groups are less productive. When resistance to organizational changes is greater and where proper leadership is not provided, such groups can affect productivity severly. If management wishes to minimize productivity, it must build cohesiveness, which does not directly influence productivity but only indirectly depending upon the alignment of group goals with the organizational goals

Group

Group Defined

From times immemorial, man has lived in a social system (a large group), and the family (a small group) is an integral part of it. On this earth, there are groups, large or small, which influence our social system, social relations and communication.

Group exists in every organisation and they effect the behaviour of their members and also other groups. They have also impact on the whole organisation. If one wants to study and organisation, one will have to understand the groups existing in that organisation and their functioning. There are so many small groups existing in that organisation. Such groups are formed by the organisation by dividing its ultimate task into small tasks, which are assigned to various subunits known as departments, sections units etc. Besides there are many other groups, which are created automatically (may be called informal groups) because of the operation of socio-pychological factors at the work place.
The social process by which people interact fact to face in small groups in called group dynamics. Interaction in small groups is not always governed by rules, regulations and conventions though well established.

The word dynamics is originally a Greek word implying force. Thus, group dynamics means the study of forces operating within a group in social interaction. It concerns the interactions and forces between group’s members in a social situation. When the concept of group dynamics of members of formal and informal groups in the organisation.
The term group dynamics has been interpreted in many ways. One view is that it deals with how the groups are formed and function. The other view is that groups dynamics is a state of techniques such as role playing, brain storming, leaderless groups, group dynamics, thus should be viewed in terms of the internal nature of groups, their information, structure and processes and the way they affect individual members, other groups and the organisation. This view is more prevalent.

Behaviour in Groups

Social variables influence the manner perception and judgement particularly in a group setting. Focus should be on the individual. But the group itself should be studied as a whole because the product of groups, interaction cannot be indicative of the performance of the individual outside the group. Both the composition and the behavioural history of a group are determinants of its stimuli for the individual members. The groups also determines the nature and patterns of reinforcement, the members receive in the course of their interaction with another. The group influences the behaviour of individuals in many ways such as in the form of conformity to group forms, group cohesiveness, group participation, group competition and group problem solving. These characteristics are found in both formal and informal groups.

Conformity to Group Norms

There are certain forms of the groups, which the group members are to follow: they are expected to behave in the same manner. This normative behaviour of the members helps the managers of the organisation to understand how and why an individual will behave in accordance with the group norms. Group norms perform two main functions.

First, norms help the group to achieve its goals: they bring uniformity of action towards the goals. Second, norms help the group maintain itself a group; these ensure that divisive forces in the group may be put under pressure against their behaviour.

People conform to group forms also for their own benefit. But the degree of conformity differs from member to member. Researches on this aspect of group’s dynamics present the following conclusion.

1. The degree of conformity to group forms depends upon the status of the group and its members. Within a group, it has been observed that the higher the rank of a person, the more nearly his activities conform to group norms.

2. Seniority also influences the degree of the conformity. A new person may be expected to adhere more closely to norms than a senior person.

3. Pressure of conformity increases with the increase in the number of persons agreeing to the norms.

4. On applying rigid standards to evaluate the forms, non-conformity as likely to increase.

Group Cohesiveness

Group cohesiveness is a situation in which all members of the group together for a common goal, or where everyone is ready to take responsibility for group chores. The greater the group cohesiveness, the greater will be its influence on the behaviour of members. Group cohesion brings low absenteeism and high personal adjustments. Many factors bring cohesion in the group such as degree of dependency on the group, size of the group, homogeneity and stable membership, composition and outside pressure.

Participation

The effectiveness of the group is determined by the degree of participation of its members in its functioning. The more the participation, the more effective is it’s functioning. Better participation results in high morale and better labor-management relationships, in addition to increased productivity

Various types of Communication

Types of Communication

These are as explained below:

According to the Organizational Structure

1. Formal Communication
Such communication is associated with the formal organisation structure. Communication travels through the formal channel we very other hear the phrase through proper channel; it explains the essence of formal channel. This is a deliberate attempt to regulate the flow of organizational communication so as to make it orderly and thereby to ensure that information flows smoothly, accurately and timely. This formal channel is the path of line authority linking the position to its line superior. It is also known as Channel of Command. Its implications is that all communication to and from a position should flow through the line superior or subordinate only, i.e., through the scalar chain. This type of formal communication is known as single-path communication. There may be multiple channel communication which improves communication through more than one path at a time.

Advantages of Formal Communication

1. It helps maintain the authority of line officers that control the subordinates and fixes the responsibility for the activities done.

2. An immediate superior has a direct contact with his subordinates. It helps understand the attitude and behaviour of each other well.

3. Since an officer knows better about the organisation and his subordinates, solutions of problems become easy.

Disadvantages of Formal Communication

1. It increases the workload of the line superior because all communications are transmitted through them. It leaves no time to perform other functions well.

2. It enables the chances of more transmission errors and reduces accuracy of the message.

3. It is not good for upward communication because officers overlook the interest of their subordinates. It implies delay tactics and red-tapism.

4. It has generally happened that the contact of distinct subordinates with the topmost superior is far and remote. They do not even recognize each other. It adversely affects the relationship.

2. Informal Communication

Such communication is free from all formalities because they are based on the informal relationship because the parties. Such communication includes comments, suggestions or any other informal reactions. Such types of communication are also called grapevine communication. They may be conveyed by a simple glance, gesture, nod, smile or silence too. It is not the result of any official action but of the operation of personal, social and group relations of the people. Informal communication is unplanned but may follow a predictable pattern.

Advantages of Informal Communication

1. Communication is always transmitted at a greater speed and is more flexible.

2. It is dynamic and reacts quickly to its changing environment.

3. It meets the social needs of people, which are not met by formal communication.

4. It provides a means for exchange of mutually beneficial information between people who are not linked through formal channels.

Disadvantages of Informal Communication

1. It is less orderly and less static, any action taken on the basis of such communication may be erratic and may lead the organisation in difficulty.

2. It very often carries half-truth, rumours and distorted information and it is difficult to fix the responsibility of such erratic information.

According to Direction of Communication

According to direction of communication, the communication may be of following three types:

1. Downward Communication
Communication which flow forms the superiors to subordinates with the help of scalar chain, is known as downward communication. They include orders, instruction, rules, policies, programmes and directions etc. There nature is directive.

2. Upward Communication
Upward communications are just reverse of the downward communications. Feedback to the higher authorities by the lower level is an upward communication. It flow form the subordinates to their superiors through the line. Such communication includes suggestions, opinion, reactions, complaints and grievance, etc. Generally the superior ignores this type of communication but in modern times it is regarded as the main source of motivation in employees.

3. Horizontal Communication
It refers to transmission of information among positions of the same level, i.e., when communication takes place between two or more persons of the same level under the same superior, it is known as horizontal communication. Such communication is to coordinates the efforts of the person working under various departments. It removes duplication of work and thus minimizes the wastage of time, money and labour.

According to Way of Expressions

On the basis of their expression communication may be divided in two categories oral and written.

Oral Communication

Transmission with the help of spoken words is a common system of communication. In oral communication both parties in the process exchange their ideas through oral words either face-to-face or through any mechanical device such as telephone, etc. Meetings, lectures, conferences are some other media of such communication.

Advantages of Oral Communication

1. It saves time and money.

2. It is more effective, Gesture, tones and facial expression make the communication effective and efficient.

3. The communicator knows the reaction of communicate. They may even clear the doubts, if any in the minds of other party.

4. It is the only way out during emergencies.

5. It is more convenient to measure the effect of communication. The communicator can easily guess whether the recipient is following him or not